The Native American Medicine Man Essay Example for Free

The Native American Medicine Man Essay The Native American medicine man, also known as a shaman (modern term), priest, healer, and even a â€Å"Star Being† were known to be the spiritual leaders of Native American cultures. Each medicine man was unique in his own way simply because each Native American tribe had their own origin of spirituality and religious beliefs. Each medicine man had their own theory on how to rid people of their troubles and ease their pain when they were ill or in some sort of distress. In this research paper I will be examining different medicine man practices and beliefs from the Native American tribes of the Cheyenne, Iroquois, and the Sioux Indians. I will be discussing some of the most common illnesses that Native Americans faced among their tribes and what the medicine men or women did to help. I will also be discussing the different resources the medicine man used, including plants for herbal remedies and other objects, in his method of curing or helping a patient; and lastly I will be discussing how some techniques have been modernized and are still used today. To begin with our observation, let us start by understanding more about the medicine man himself and how the medicine man was perceived amongst his tribe. Even though each medicine man was unique in his practices, each medicine man shared a common adoration amongst their tribal members. In general, tribes have many similarities in regards to medical practices, but the actual methods used differ with the tribe and their locations, as well as with individual healers themselves. â€Å"Magic, prayers, songs, exhortation, suggestion, ceremonies, fetishes, and certain specifics and mechanical processes are employed only by the medicine-men or medicine-women; other specific remedies or procedures are proprietary, generally among a few old women in the tribe; while many vegetal remedies and simple manipulations are of common knowledge in a given locality. † The medicine man was not relied on to hunt and fish for food like other tribesmen were. The medicine man was more useful when he could be out spreading his tribes’ religious beliefs to others as well as bringing peace to those troubled or ill. The medicine man was much like our modern day doctor, priest, psychiatrist, and counselor all rolled up into one big package that was relied on to heal not only a person’s body but also a person’s spirit. He even sometimes served as a middle man to bring peace between humans troubled with other humans. The medicine man was like a virtual bridge between the natural world and the spiritual world for the benefit of his community. Practices and Beliefs As stated above, different techniques of healing were involved in a medicine man’smethods: Magic, prayers, songs and ceremonies were the most common. Magicwas used to oppose an alleged harmful influence, such as spirits of the dead, mythical animals, etc. Prayers in contrast, often addressed good spirits as the medicine man would try to call upon their aid while he was attending his patient. Healing songs consisted of prayers or exhortations and were sung. Loud ranting wasalso done to ward off evil spirits that wereknown to cause sickness; the loud noises was saidto frighten such evil spirits away. Ceremonies meant to cure a patient usually combined all or most of the techniques mentioned above. Some of them, as described about the Navaho Indians, were very complicated, drawn out, and tended to be costly. 3 â€Å"The fetishes used are peculiarly shaped stones or wooden objects, lightning-riven wood, feathers, claws, hair, figurines of mythic animals, representations of the sun, of lightning, etc, and are supposed to embody a mysterious power capable of preventing disease or of counteracting its effects. †3 Dieting and total self-restraint from food were also forms of treatment in some various localities. Cheyenne Indians. The Cheyenne Indians are known to be one of the most westerly tribes; at first they were located on the Cheyenne (obviously where they got their name), which is a branch of the Red River of the North. As they were driven by the Sioux Indians, they began to occupy beyond the Missouri, and eventually ending up near the Black Hills after being driven there near the end of the eighteenth century. The medicine man was a very important person for the Cheyenne. He was like a combination of a doctor, a priest, and a healer both of the body and of the spirit. He, like other medicine men not only knew about the proper use of native plants in his surrounding area that had medicinal properties, but he also knew various ceremonies, chants, and songs which were supposed to wield magical powers for the benefit of individuals or for the whole tribe. He, like other medicine men, accepted items for trade as a method of payment instead of U. S. currency. There are many types of religious beliefs and traditions passed on through generations that may influence the way the medicine man may aid those who are in need. The Cheyenne for example, believed in spirit beings which resided in our universe (which they called the universe to Hestanov) and their holiness was comparative to their relationship to their believed creator of all physical and spiritual life, Ma’heo’o. â€Å"In Cheyenne religious expressions, aspects of these spirit-beings or the spirit-beings themselves are entwined symbolically with plant and animal forms portrayed in Cheyenne ceremonies. Many Cheyenne today view the worlds ecological crisis as an end to Hestanov. † Disease came from both natural and supernatural causes for the Cheyenne. Curing techniques involved the use of herbal and root remedies, ritual purification, the sweat lodge, smoking, prayer, and sometimes surgery. Both men and women were healers. Treatment of sickness was designed to restore the patient not only biologically but spiritually as well. 8 Iroquois Indians The Iroquois Indians consisted of six tribes which were under one confederation: The Mohawk Indians, the Seneca, the Oneida, the Cayuga, the Onondaga, and the Tuscarora. The Iroquois tribes were spread throughout much of what we now call New York. The Iroquois Indians also believed in spirit-beings. They believed that plagues and diseases were caused by evil spirits; they attempted to cure the sick by holding a religious festival to ask for the aid of their great spirit to rid their people of the bad spirits. They also believe that disease can infect a person simply from not fulfilling their dreams or their desires. They believe that sometimes a person’s dreams can reveal what caused the disease, information which they used to cure the patient. To touch more on the basis of the Iroquois people’s belief in dreams (as this was a large part of their healing practices), they viewed dreams as â€Å"experiences of the soul in which we may travel outside the body, across time and space, and into other dimensionsor receive visitations from ancestors or spiritual guides†. They also believed that dreams revealed the wishes of one’s soul, which would dig deeper, beyond our own personal goals and those of others entwined with ours, to create a more spirited life. They believe that dreams also allow us to find â€Å"where our vital soul energy may have gone missingthrough pain or trauma or heartbreakand how to get it back. †7 Aside from their strong reliance from dreams, one of the most interesting objects that the Iroquois used during their healing rituals were wooden masks which were used to invoke spirits and the dream world. The healing ritual started off by telling the legendary history of how the mask came to be, the tribal members wearing the masks (known as the False Face Society members) would go through homes looking for anyone who is diseased or ill. If a sick person is found, they would perform the healing ritual which consisted of using rattles made out of turtle shells and blown ashes from tobacco. The ritual dancing continued throughout the ceremony and ended with a ceremonial ash blowing and finalized it with a feast. These rituals were known to be performed three main times during the year, and smaller ceremonies were held whenever an ill person requested or required it. 7 Navajo Indians The Navajo Indians were mainly located in the southwestern part of the United States, near Arizona and New Mexico. The medicine man of the Navajo culture was extremely important. The medicine man was not expected to just heal the ill and the injured, but he was also expected to hold the knowledge of their heritage, their traditions, and their beliefs of the Navajo culture. When the medicine man was called to perform a healing ceremony, he would come to heal and also come to tell the story of their people and how they emerged into this world. The medicine man of the Navajo Indians (as well as other medicine men) had a lot of knowledge he was expected to hold. He was expected to spend many hours learning different ceremonial procedures (usually a total of three). He was expected to learn songs and prayers, which none of the wording could be missed or only bad things could happen to the patient. He was expected to learn about many different types of herbs; as well as be expected to go out and gather the items he needed for his sacred medicine bag. He was also expected to purify himself by spending many hours with deep thoughts in a sweat hut. ; and he was also expected to have faith in the Great Spirit and in himself, all of which he needed to be able to successfully heal. The Navajo medicine man performed and learned several different ceremonies. Other than using the ceremonies to heal the ill, provide strength, and restore vitality to a patient; ceremonies were also held to celebrate a girls puberty called the Beauty Way ceremony and to celebrate a babys first laugh called the Hooghan Blessin Ceremony. Navajo ceremonies were basically held to restore ones beauty, harmony, balance, and ones health. There are said to be approximately fifty-eight to sixty sacred ceremonies. Most of them last four days or more; to be most effective, they require that relatives and friends attend and help out. Outsiders are often discouraged from participating in case they become a burden to others or violate a taboo. This could affect the turnout of the ceremony. The ceremony must be done in precisely the correct manner to heal the patient. This includes everyone that is involved. 14 Aside from the ceremonies (which seems to be the most popular form of healing for the Navajo), the medicine man would use several different methods to find out what the diagnoses is on a patient. He used objects such as crystal rocks or used a chanting prayer while he shook his hands over the patients body, reciting healing chants for whatever ailment he suspected the patient to have, sometimes the chant would last a few hours. Common Ailments/Diseases Some possible causes of ailments could be the result of violating taboos believed by their Native American cultures. Contact with lightning-struck objects for example, or being exposed to animals such as snakes which were considered to be a taboo animal, or even being in contact with the dead were some of reasons that required healing and chants. Warriors often suffered spiritual and psychological damage from taking part in warfare. They would come back and a ceremony called the Enemy Way Ceremony would be performed in order to help restore the harmony back to the person, both mentally and emotionally. Curses were other reasons the medicine man would need to attend a patient. It wasnt until the European colonizations arrived that diseases the Native Americans could not control began to take hold of thousands upon thousands of lives. Before the Europeans arrived, the most common ailments were common colds, injuries, violating local taboos, psychological injuries, and those which were believed to be invoked by both good and bad spirits. After the Europeans arrived, the Native Americans had no immunity towards the most deadly disease, smallpox. Smallpox seemed to have come in waves, even destroying entire villages, not only because Native Americans had no immunity, but because they did not know how to treat the disease either. Other common diseases at that time were scarlet fever, cholera, influenza, whooping cough, and many more. Resources Used for Curing Many plants were used for herbal remedies to cure those who were ill. Some plants were used as remedies without any thought as to what they actually did for the patient. Every tribe were aware of what the poisonous plants were in their surrounding areas, as well as their antidotes. Roots, occasionally twigs, leaves, bark, flowers and seeds were the most common plant parts used. The plants could be either fresh or dry, and most commonly the medicine man would extract the main ingredient he needed out of the plant. Generally only a single plant would need to be used, but among some Indians as many as four plants would be combined for a single medicine. 2 Animal and mineral substances were also occasionally used as remedies. Among Southwestern tribes the bite of a snake was often treated by applying to the wound a portion of the ventral surface of the body of the same snake. 2 Other animals used for remedies include: crickets, lizards, and spiders eggs. Navajo Indians as well as some other Indian tribes used reddish-orange earthy iron oxide combined with fat to apply externally to prevent sunburn. The red, barren clay from beneath a campfire was used by White Mountain Apache women to induce sterility; the Hopi blow charcoal, ashes, or other products of fire on an inflamed surface to counteract the supposed fire which causes the ailment. 2 Objects were also used to help cure ailments. One object, for example, was used in Blackfeet Indians ceremonies was called a sacred medicine bundle, which the medicine man used and was expected to sing four hundred lengthy chants without missing a word or getting a stanza out of place. 2 Rattles were also used to aid with chants, as well as other miscellaneous objects that the medicine man felt would help call the Great Spirits for aid. Related Methods Used Today Presently, most Native Americans use modern medicine to cure afflictions, but native healers are still used by many people today. There are hospitals located on Indian reservations where modern day Native American doctors still perform healing chants to their patients. Other methods of healing, such as aromatherapy, is said to derive from Native Americans because with aromatherapy, candles, oils, and different things which produce a scent can alter ones mood as well as enhance the body, the mind, and the spirit. Many of the herbs used by Native Americans are the ones you can actually find in aspirin and other medications today. Many ingredients used in various modern medications are actually derived from Native American cultures. 17 Several over- the counter and prescription drugs contain ingredients such as taxol, ergot, and vincristine, which were derived from Native American medicinal herbs. The OAM reported that cough drops that contain menthol, mint, horehound, or lemons are herbal preparations; chamomile and mint teas taken for digestion or a nervous stomach are time- honored herbal remedies; and many simple but effective OTC ache- and pain- relieving preparations on every druggists or grocers shelf contain oils of camphor, menthol, or eucalyptus. Millions of Americans greet the morning with their favorite herbal stimulant coffee. 17 Conclusion Native American medicine men have played a huge role in my mind when it comes to our modern day medical treatments. Without their knowledge of our natural plant and animal resources, I believe it would have taken us quite a few more years before we would have discovered vaccinations for smallpox and treatments for other illnesses. I think we, decedents of our European ancestors, still greatly underestimate the knowledge of Native Americans†¦ even to this day. Native Americans kept themselves healthy and free of major epidemics of disease until the Europeans settled on their land. Before medical technology became available, doctors relied on the Native American knowledge of nature and natural resources to cure a persons illnesses. People started to depend heavily on the modern medical technology; forgetting about their roots in their Native American cultures. Advanced technology and improved medical ways seems to have made some people forget to thank and remember the Native American Indians who gave them their beginning knowledge to begin with. * Bibliography Cheyenne- Religion and Expressive Culture. http://www. everyculture. com/North-America/Cheyenne-Religion-and-Expressive-Culture. html (accessed May 16, 2011). Handbook of American Indians, 1906. Access Genealogy. 1999-2011. http://www. accessgenealogy. com/native/tribes/history/indianmedicine. htm (accessed May 16, 2011). Iverson, Peter, Jennifer Nez Denetdale, and Ada E. Deer. The Navajo. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 2006. Lippert, Dorothy, and Stephen J Spignesi. Native American History For Dummies. Hoboken: Wiley Publishing Inc, 2008. Mazaska Enterprises, LTD. Indian medicine men, spiritual leaders, priests and shamans. AAANativeArts. com. 1999-2005. http://www. aaanativearts. com/medicine_men. htm (accessed May 16, 2011). Michaele. Support Native American Art. 2010. http://www. support-native-american-art. com/iroquois-masks. html (accessed May 15, 2011). Moss, Robert. Dreamways of the Iroquois: Honoring the Secret Wishes of the Soul. Rochester: Destiny Books, 2004. Native Languages of the Americas. Native Languages of the Americas: Native American Cultlures. 1998-2011. http://www. bigorrin. org/mohawk_kids. htm (accessed May 15, 2011). Navajo Tourism. Discover Navajo. 2008. http://discovernavajo. com/a11. html (accessed May 16, 2011). Paul. Son of the South. 2003-2008. http://www. sonofthesouth. net/american-indians/cheyenne-indians. htm (accessed May 15, 2011). Primitive Concept of Disease. University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. XXXII, 1932. Sandner, Donald. Navaho symbols of healing: a Jungian exploration of ritual, image, and medicine. Rochester: Healing Arts Press, 1991. Terpning, Howard. Medicine Man of the Cheyenne. National Academy of Western Art. Swoyers Fine Art Collections. The Study of Native Americans. February 11, 1998. http://inkido. indiana. edu/w310work/romac/native. htm (accessed May 16, 2011). Wolf, Melinda. Alternative Medicine: A journey to proactive healthcare. CNI Newspapers , 1999. [ 1 ]. (Terpning n. d. ) [ 2 ]. (Mazaska Enterprises, LTD 1999-2005) [ 3 ]. (Handbook of American Indians, 1906 1999-2011) [ 4 ]. (Paul 2003-2008) [ 5 ]. (Terpning n. d. ) [ 6 ]. (Cheyenne- Religion and Expressive Culture n. d. ) [ 7 ]. (Native Languages of the Americas 1998-2011) [ 8 ]. (Primitive Concept of Disease 1932) [ 9 ]. (Moss 2004) [ 10 ]. (Michaele 2010) [ 11 ]. (The Study of Native Americans 1998) [ 12 ]. (Navajo Tourism 2008) [ 13 ]. (Navajo Tourism 2008) [ 14 ]. (Iverson, Nez Denetdale and Deer 2006).

Human Error and Perceptual Control Theory

Human Error and Perceptual Control Theory Overview In this paper, I will explore and advocate the importance of both Human Error and Perceptual Control Theory for design of complex human-machine systems, enhanced user experience and better human performance and safety. Human Error Errors are the result of actions that fail to generate the intended outcomes (SKYbrary). Human operators are one of the biggest sources of errors in any complex system (Shelton, 1999). According to Sanders McCormick (1976), Human error is an inappropriate or undesirable human decision or behavior that reduces, or has the potential for reducing effectiveness, safety and performance of a system and/or human (Kurniawan). Error Types Researchers have differentiated between two types of error:1) slipsand lapses 2) mistakes. Slips and lapses According to SKYbrary, a person intends to carry out an action, the action is appropriate, carries it out incorrectly, and the desired goal is not achieved an execution failure has occurred. Execution errors result from failures in the execution and/or storage stage of an action sequence. Slips relate to observable actions and are commonly associated with attentiveness or perceptual failures. Lapses are more internal events and generally involve failures of memory (SKYbrary). Mistakes As mentioned in UKEssays.com, Mistakes occur when an intended outcome is not achieved even though there was adherence to the steps in the plan. This is usually a case in which the original plan was wrong, was followed, and resulted in an unintended outcome (UKEssays.com). Error mechanisms The following three error mechanisms are widely accepted, which correlate with human performance levels. Skill-based errors Errors of execution Occur during highly routine activities or automated tasks with occasional checks Action chosen by the operator but not in accordance with the operator’s intentions Done by highly experienced individuals due to inattention or distraction Rule-based errors Applies to familiar situations Incorrect application of a good rule, correct application of a bad rule or failure to apply a good rule Knowledge-based errors Occur in unique and unfamiliar situations Result from inadequate analysis or decision making (trial and error) Done by operators with insufficient knowledge Applications of Human error theory Human error is inevitable. However, human error mitigation strategies could be devised by understanding various error mechanisms and triggers, as depicted in the human error theory. Superior system design, better recruitment and selection of operators, training, stress and fatigue prevention measures, better equipment procedures and improved work environment can reduce error consequences and likelihood. By understanding human error, system designers can plan for likely error scenarios, and implement barriers to prevent or mitigate the occurrence of potential errors. Some approaches to build a better human machine interaction system are explained below. Identification of error environment First step in human error mitigation approach is to understand the work environment, recognize capacity of the users, identify possible loopholes n the system and be familiar with potential user error occurrence and consequences. Likelihood of an error and severity of potential harm should also be examined. For example, FDA (Food and Drug Administration) requires manufacturers to submit a failure analysis report FMEA (Failure Mode and Effect Analysis) while launching any new medical device. Design solutions to address errors Error elimination First and foremost design strategy is to eliminate design features, which are sources of user errors. Design weaknesses identified during observation and task analysis should be removed or revised. Removal of excessive and irrelevant information, inclusion of validity checks and task automations are some design aspects that support error elimination approach. Additionally, carrying out periodical test runs of the system might be helpful in eliminating some of the rules based errors. Error reduction Designers should try to reduce error occurrences for features that cannot be removed completely. Building consistent designs and providing alerts, warnings, confirmations and other necessary feedback to users may prevent users to make errors of execution (skill-based errors). Consequence elimination Consequence elimination is an approach to prevent potential harm after the occurrence of error. Designers can devise features that provide information about potential harm and ways to correct the situation (e.g. undo) and/or prevent onset of side effects (e.g. automatic locking or shutdown, process delays) in order to prevent error consequences. Consequence reduction This is a last design alternative a designer can look into if above mentioned options are not feasible to incorporate. Decreasing the effect of error is helpful especially in catastrophic situations. Design of supplementary features is usually necessary to achieve this purpose. Backup and restore features, automatic reporting to stakeholders/police/medical teams and automated substitute drug delivery are some of the techniques for reducing effects of consequences. Error elimination and error reduction are often the most cost effective methods to avert user errors. Trainings Knowledge-based errors can be eliminated to some extent by providing system-oriented trainings, especially to novice users. On the other hand, a different training program could be devised for experienced users. Periodical trainings could keep experts up-to-date with latest developments in their field and assess their knowledge of system procedural checks. Essentially, this may help minimizing skill-based errors. Perceptual Control Theory (PCT) Perceptual control theory (PCT) is a theory of human and animal behavior. It is based on the principles of control theory (Powers, 1973). As cited by Lulham (2005), at the core of PCT is the idea that many of the processes involved in how human functions are most appropriately conceptualized and modelled as dynamic control processes (Powers, 1999b). Control processes are proposed to be fundamental to many functions including those related to physiological (e.g. temperature regulation), neural (e.g. attention), motor control (e.g. driving a car), psychological (e.g. maintenance of a criminal identity) and social (e.g. staff-detainee relationship) functions (Lulham, 2005). According to Cherry Farrel (1998), PCT exploits the concept of a purpose behind the behaviour. A perception (which is a transformation of stimuli from the world) is then compared to its reference signal, and a perceptual error is generated. A person acts on the world in such a manner to minimise this error. The stabilisation of this control loop is the essence of PCT (Chery Farrell , 1998). Applications of PCT Using perceptions for building complex systems System environments are becoming increasingly complex. Traditional cause and effect methods of understanding system operations and user interactions may not work well in order to employ personalization and user experience in these complex systems. According to pctweb.org, the person compares a ‘standard’ (what they want) with what they are experiencing right now (their perception). The difference between the two – the discrepancy or error is being measured. The bigger the error the more the effort the person makes to reduce it, until the error is zero – this means they get what they want (pctweb.org). The basic premise of PCT is that human behavior is not about the behavior itself, but about reinforcing desired perception (O’Neal, 2012). Understanding and applying this concept of individually preferred perceptions through PCT will help in designing effective personal information management for complex systems and enhancing the overall user experience. User research and analysis PCT is particularly helpful in understanding users’ behaviors and motives behind their actions. Often system designers evaluate possible system states and static change in control values needed to achieve those states. Tasks are carried out on the controls to attain the new state and user is though of as a controller of these tasks. Designers use task analysis method to perform user research and concentrate on physical tasks a user performs. However, instead of system oriented or designer oriented view, PCT goes much deeper and offers user’s standpoint. PCT provides framework to realize dynamic nature of user interactions. System designers can use PCT to understand how users constantly perceive and compare system states and take dissimilar actions to reinstate appropriate system state every time. Furthermore, Powers (1973) proposed behavior as a control of perceptions. Instead of focusing on a physical activity during the task analysis, PCT suggests focusing on users’ behaviors that lead them to perform actions to achieve desired perception (system state). Thus, using the PCT framework, designers can integrate physical, cognitive and behavioral sides of a user’s interaction with the system. Moreover, PCT analysis of intentions from different user groups exposes their shared narrative, which in turn, helps in finding system requirements for hidden, absent user (O’Neal, 2012). For example, a customer service representative might use call center software while working to resolve an issue with a customer. While the customer is not a direct user of the software system, he is affected indirectly. The customer here is a hidden user. His perceptions should be analyzed to understand his requirements and objectives while developing the call center system. Empowered designs PCT offers a design framework toward the satisfaction of the users desired percepts. Human-machine system performance is enhanced when the displays and controls are designed to allow the operator to perceive and transmit information in order to minimize the perceptual error (Chery Farrell , 1998). According to PCT, when a user interacts with the system, he is constantly trying to bring equilibrium, changing his perception to the reference point, which is his new perception. Keeping this in mind, a designer should build the system that transforms from an old state to the new state seamlessly, provides estimate of gap between old and new state, furnish necessary feedback to keep the user aware of the environment variables and helps the user to manage disturbances. These functionalities will help users to gain accurate information regarding their perceptions, empower them to undertake correct amount of action to reach to new perception, ultimately helping them achieve self-regulation and stability. For example, the windshield of the car let the user scan his environment and gather information necessary to their perception, the car dashboard continuously displays speed and other important elements to help user assess different system states, and the gear stick helps user achieve n ew state from the old one smoothly. Other features like wiper, headlights, turn signals etc. facilitate users to manage disturbances as much as possible. Thus, human-machine designs should be compatible with user’s interpretations of information in order to improve their decision making process and overall system performance. Conclusion Both human error and PCT frameworks are valuable in building complex system designs to facilitate information management, enhance security and improve both system and human performance. By understanding fundamentals of human errors, designers can build a system that is more usable, provides meaningful feedbacks and include training, procedural checks and incentive programs. However, according to Shelton (1999), there is a trade-off between making the HCI relatively easy and intuitive and ensuring that system safety is not compromised by lulling the operator into a state of complacency. In PCT, the error is continuously measured to achieve equilibrium. Per Lulham (2005), those involved in developing the theory believe PCT has significant potential to change the way human functioning is understood. However, further research is required for advancement of PCT framework. References Component-based usability testing. (n.d.). Retrieved from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component-Based_Usability_Testing Embrey, D. Understanding Human Behaviour and Error. Human Reliability Associates. Latino, R. J. (2007, Nov). Defining and reducing human error. Briefings Page on Patient Safety . O’Neal, A. (2012, July). Intention-Focused Design: Applying Perceptual Control Theory to Discover User Intent. Retrieved 2013, from UXmatters.com: http://www.uxmatters.com/mt/archives/2012/07/intention-focused-design-applying-perceptual-control-theory-to-discover-user-intent.php PCTweb. (n.d.). What is PCT? Retrieved from PCTweb: http://www.pctweb.org/whatis/whatispct_03.html Powers, W. T. (n.d.). A brief introduction to Perceptual Control Theory . Retrieved from Frontier: http://www.frontier.net/~powers_w/whatpct.html Shelton, C. P. Human Interface/Human Error. Carnegie Mellon University. SKYbrary. (n.d.). Human Error Types. Retrieved from SKYbrary: http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Human_Error_Types 1 Lajja Mehta

Jane Erye vs. Charlotte Bronte Essay -- essays research papers fc

Charlotte Bronte, born in 1816 at Thornton, Yorkshire, England, is an English writer who is one of three sisters, who are also famous for their writings. Bronte wrote Jane Eyre based on her own life experiences, which is why the novel is subtitled â€Å"An Autobiography†. Much of the romantic appeal in Jane Eyre comes from Bronte’s own personal history. Many critics argue that the novel is simply a reflection of Bronte’s life. Furthermore, there are several ways in which, Bronte’s life is similar to the life of Jane and the events that take place in the novel. Charlotte is described as simple, plain, and petite and the daughter of a clergyman just like Jane. Whenever, Charlotte wanted to get away from her daily life, she would absorb herself into the landscape and nature around her to relive her of stress and Jane is also deeply influenced by nature. After the death of her mother, Charlotte was sent to live with her strict and religious aunt, Elisabeth Branwell, who is like Jane’s aunt, Mrs. Reed. In addition, in the house that Charlotte stayed in, there was a small room upstairs that was about the size of a closet, which is similar to the room where Bertha is kept in. On the contrary, this room served as a playroom for Charlotte and her sisters. As a child, Charlotte attended a school specifically for the daughters of clergymen in 1824, which is comparable to Lowood School, where Jane went. Immediately after being a student at the school, Charlotte also became a teacher. In Jane...

Another Napoleon :: essays research papers

Most historians portray Napoleon's return to France as an example of his disregard for hundreds of thousands of lives in order to satisfy his outsized ambition. We at Napoleon on the Net, however, view the `Hundred Days' as an example of the Emperor's superior charisma and the love for him that it inspired. The support of the common people of France was the basis of Napoleonic rule. The generals and the politicians did not rush to support Napoleon's new adventure, but, as we will show, the front-line soldiers and the common people were determined to uphold the basic principle the Revolution: that it is the people's right to decide the form of their government. Vincent Cronin, in his acclaimed biography of Napoleon, entitled Napoleon Bonaparte: An Intimate Biography (William Morrow & Company, 1972, pp. 391-392), describes Napoleon's first major confrontation with French troops sent by the Bourbon regime to kill or capture him. "Napoleon had 1,100 men against about 700. But he did not want bloodshed. The abhorrence of civil war he had felt twenty years before in Provence remained as strong as ever and, on landing, he had given Cambronne strict orders that not a shot was to be fired. What he did now ws to order his hundred Polish lancers to advance slowly. At this Delessart withdrew his men, in good order, to new positions. The Polish lancers were told to wheel and come back. Napoleon then had the tricolour unfolded and told the Guards' band to play the Marseillaise, which he had described in Elba as `the greatest general of the Revolution'. Forbidden since the return of the Bourbons, the stirring tune had the effect, said one observor, of `electrifying' the Grenoble soldiers. Napoleon started riding towards the men of the 5th. At pistol-shot range he dismounted and walked towards the 700 loaded muskets. He was wearing his grey campaigning overcoat, familiar to every Frenchman. Captain Randon, twenty years old, of Grenoble, called to his men, `There he is! Fire!' After taking a few steps, Napoleon stopped and drew apart the lapels of his overcoat, exposing his white waistcoat. `If you want to kill your Emperor,' he called in loud voice, `here I am!' Back came a tremendous shout of `Long live the Emperor!' The men of the 5th, waving their shakos on bayonets, rushed cheering towards him. `Just see if we want to kill you,' shouted one soldier, rattling his ramrod up and down the barrel of his empty musket. In a matter of minutes the soldiers had whipped from their haversacks the old tricolour

The Hobbit :: Book Report Hobbit Essays

The Hobbit Book Report CHARACTER INTRODUCTION †¢ BILBO BAGGINS: The Hobbit who led the Dwarves to the Lonely Mountain to reclaim their treasure from the dragon Smaug. He found the One Ring in Gollum's cave †¢ GANDALF: The Wizard that accompanies Bilbo and the dwarves on their quest. He is well versed in magic spells and often calls upon them to save his comrades. †¢ THORIN OAKENSHIELD: Son of the King of Dwarves who were driven from the Lonely Mountain by Smaug. With the aid of Gandalf and Bilbo he seeks regain his treasure and the throne. When Smaug died he truly became King under the Mountain, though he was killed in combat in the battle of five Armies. †¢ SMAUG: The dragon of the Lonely Mountain who hordes the treasure he stole from the dwarves of Dale. †¢ GOLLUM: He is perfect example of the evil powers of the One Ring. He was born a Hobbit but had the ring too long. It made him into a slimy little creature that only lives to possess the ring. †¢ BARD: The archer who killed Smaug. He shot the dragon in the one spot it had no protection. The town’s people later considered him a hero. What the people didn't know it was Bilbo who discovered the weak spot in the dragon's iron scales. †¢ BEORN: An enemy of Orcs, he becomes friends with Bilbo and Gandalf. He has the ability to change forms from human to bear. It is he who determines the outcome of the battle of five Armies. STORY SUMMARY The book begins with Bilbo Baggins enjoying a pipe after breakfast. This is one of his favorite pleasures and he feels quite content in doing so. He is middle-aged, and resides in a clean warm burrow in the ground. One morning Gandalf, a wizard stops by to chat with Bilbo. He informs Bilbo that he is looking for someone to go on an adventure with him. Although Bilbo is tempted he declines, but not before inviting Gandalf for tea the next morning. The next day Bilbo hears his doorbell and he recalls inviting Gandalf for tea, but instead of the wizard at the door, there is a group of dwarves... thirteen in all. Thorin son of the dwarf king starts to outline a plan on how to regain the treasure stolen by the dragon Smaug.

Eulogy of Mrytle WIlson

Wilson is more affected by Myrtle's death than he lets on. Therefore, I wrote this eulogy as Wilson for Myrtle to show the depth and complexity of their relationship. I tried to show Willow's feelings for Myrtle, rather than a ‘spiritless' man as depicted through the things he did for Myrtle. Including the things Myrtle did for Wilson shows his appreciation and love for her. Due to the lack of information In the novel, some of the content was crafted based on scenes In the novel and from my thoughts of their relationship.By Including the deep relationship between the couple, It allows the readers to better understand why Wilson killed Gatsby and himself. The vocabulary used is simple, as Wilson was uneducated. The use of constant repetition and similar sentence structure shows that Wilson was a simple man and that he did not know how to express himself clearly. It also emphasizes on the extent of his love and guilt. Short sentences are used to depict Willow's passive and shy na ture. There is a use of dramatic irony by showing how happy Wilson was when Myrtle spent the weekend with her friends, and when she wore nice dresses she ‘bought tit her savings'.Wilson is oblivious about the affair, unlike the audience. This shows how the American Dream Is flawed. Although Wilson worked hard and shower Myrtle with love, Myrtle still chose Tom. It also shows how materialistic people were back then. Myrtle chose Wilson merely on his appearance and now wants to be with Tom for his wealth. This eulogy is written in the first person perspective to show intimacy between the two. Instead of using a second person perspective to describe Myrtle, It shows Willow's deep attachment to his dead wife. 300 words) Good morning, I am George Wilson, Myrtle's husband. I would like to start off by thanking every single one of you for your presence today. Myrtle would be happy If she were still here. Myrtle, you are the love of my life. You entered my life on a fateful Friday 15 years ago, wearing a pink-laced dress, topped with a cream hat. You danced with such beauty, elegance and grace. However it wasn't your beauty that set you apart from the others. It was your bubbly and outgoing personality, your vitality that caught my eye.I knew that you were the one, I knew that I wanted to be yours, I knew that we courage to take the first step to talk to you. I wanted to look my best for you, I wanted you to notice me, I wanted you to like me. I worked very hard day and night at the garage. I was hoping to get a decent piece of clothing. The day of the gathering drew closer and closer. I still had yet to get enough money for a suit. I asked God continuously for help, and He answered my prayer. I was able to borrow a suit from a customer after begging him for it. The quality of the silk tie I bought came with a hefty price, but it was all worth it.I never once regretted all the hard work put in to get that suit, because it brought me a step closer to you, y dear. I remember the Joy on your face, that unspeakable Joy, when I proposed. I remember how your face turned crimson. I remember the 20 graceful steps you took down the aisle, towards me. You wore a hand crafted pristine white gown, fitted with laces and frills. It was exactly the one you told me about, the one you dreamed of since young. I remember how my heart skipped a beat when you stood beside me. I remember how your hands were gently holding on to mine. At that moment, I Just wanted to be yours.Seeing that pure Joy in your eyes when we were pronounced husband and fife was worth so much more than all the extra hours spent working, all the meals forgone, all the sweat and blood shed to make our wedding perfect. Nothing mattered more to me than you, Myrtle. I love you. Working at the gas station isn't an easy Job, but all was worth it. You always told me I work too much as compared to what I earned. But I know the little that I earn can one day bring you happiness. I know you want to get out of this place. I want to be the one leaving with you. Myrtle, you always looked forward to the weekends spent with your friends.Seeing oh smiling from ear to ear when you return brings me so much Joy. It means the world to see you happy. Although your friends have rich husbands and live in big houses, you never uttered a word of complaint. You never looked down on me. You never compared me to the others. You never leave my side. Thank you for loving me. Thank you for staying by my side. Thank you for being happy, so I would be happy too. I love you. Myrtle, you bring color to my dull life. You always wear colorful dresses. You always doll yourself up. You always try to look your best for me. I know you are aware hat I don't earn much.I know you never once asked me for money. I know you have always used your savings to get yourself what you want. You always think of me. You always share the burden with me. You always put my needs above yours. Thank you, my dear, for being so selfless. I wish I could be more like you. The last words you said were asking me to beat you. You are the apple of my eye, you are a precious gem to a peasant like me. Why would I want to hurt you? I love you, my coward. Yes, I am a coward. But that's because I Just wanted to be yours, to listen to what you say, to obey your every command. Myrtle, I love you.I always question myself why did you choose me, I am poor, I am not that good looking, I am useless. Despite all my shortcomings, you loved me Just the way I am, and you gave me all that I needed and wanted. I want to earn more. I want you to see the world. I want to spend more time with you. I want to shower you with love. I failed to do so. Now, it is too late. I'm sorry for not showing my love Just like how you showed yours. I'm sorry for not giving you the life you always wanted. I'm sorry for not showering you with clothes. I'm sorry for all the suffering you had to go through.I'm sorry for being overprotective at times. I'm sorry for being a coward. I'm sorry dear, I'm sorry, and I'll love you, for all eternity. Myrtle is not perfect, but I love her Just the way she is. She accepted me for who I am and forgave me for all my faults, and I will do the same. To all those Judging onlookers, Myrtle does not deserve to be criticized, for she is perfect to me, and that is all she needs to be. Myrtle dear, your imperfections are what I love most about you, and it is your imperfections that I will miss most. Goodbye and take care, my dear. I will always love you.

Porters 5 Forces Analysis Of Communications Industry Essay

The wireless communications industry is one of the world’s sectors of the economy that is experiencing high competition due to challenges of globalization, advance in technology and diversity of customer needs. The main services that are offered in this business are; internet access, cell phone service or mobile communication, messaging, music, ring tone and video distribution among others. There are about 600 companies that are actively involved in this industry and they constitute combined annual revenue of over 110 billion US dollars. However, there are four major companies that have dominated this concentrated market fro some time and they include; Verizon, Sprint Nextel, T-mobile and AT&T. Wireless communication services owe its demand to an increase in consumer income and only those with good income can actually utilize or receive such services. Most businesses also utilize the technology and therefore the profitability of the wireless companies depends on how best they can attract these businesses, their marketing skills and their ability to come up with new innovative technologies. Porters five forces analysis has been used by many companies to analyze their position in the industry and therefore strategically position itself to handle the issue of competition. Since the issue has been identified as a major threat to the existence of the companies industry, this kind of analysis is thus suitable for companies which would like to understand their competitors, their customers, buyers, sellers, suppliers, and other stakeholders in the business.   (Porter, 1985) Threat of New Entrants Previously established wireless communication firms pose a big challenge to new companies in the market which try to exploit the new markets. Although substitute services are being offered in smaller companies, they still have to ‘beat’ one another in either way in order to create a better market share.   With known brand names and higher customer loyalty, established firms to push customers to start using their new products in the market since they have a name in the market. The new entrants need to assess the market effectively and ensure that they learn their customers very well although very few for a start and also ensure that they position themselves strategically to compete more successfully to remain in business. The established firms on the other hand need to maintain good relationships with their customers so that the competitors i.e. the new entrants may not take away their customers. This way, they rest assured that they will remain in the market for a longer time (McGahan, 2004) Power of Suppliers Due to the bargaining power of suppliers, customers in this industry have started to become sensitive to the monopoly imposed by some suppliers and also the changes in prices that affect the way they receive services or products. In most cases, suppliers tend to utilize all unique ways in order to bargain for what they want. First, they would like a company such as T-Mobile to offer hem better prices before they manipulate the customer’s price therefore ending up with huge prices. In some companies, they have become a competitive threat because when they raise their prices, the customers will tend to look for substitute services which can still satisfy their needs but a lower cost. In this industry however, the suppliers have little to influence although they can maneuver their way in the market price for certain services. (Porter, 1985) Competitive Rivalry Competition is almost everywhere today but in the wireless communication industry, it is worse. Given an improved world economy and globalization of businesses, there is rush for new customers by every company. Due to the high concentration of companies in this industry, it requires very competitive minds to venture in his business. Verizon and other companies are experiencing intensive rivalry that has benefited the consumers (Lovelock, 2006). In order to effectively handle the issue of rivalry, some companies such as verizon have resorted to joint ventures for them to increase their market potential. AT&T had a gross profit margin of 60.7% while its closet rival Verizon had 59.50%, Qwest had61.8% and Sprint Nextel had 57.60%. All these four companies, everybody will agree, face competitive rivalry amongst themselves in the business. Although AT&T has a superior value on its market capitalization, it must keep its toes in order to meet the challenge offered by Verizon. (McGahan, 2004) Power of Buyers Buyers are the most sensitive lot in any business because they influence demand, supply and even distribution. In addition, they rely mostly on quality services that satisfy their needs. Due to changes in technology, customers would like to have fast communication services, reliable internet access, accurate and reliable billing among other needs. When either the suppliers or manufacturers increase their products, they will most probably go for substitute products. Many companies allow their customers to bargain for their prices but take into consideration the competitor’s prices. When prices are low and services are of high quality, it is better for the companies. It is widely acknowledged that about 95% of wireless services go directly to the consumers and a mere 5% goes to resellers and suppliers. This indicates that, the market is getting saturated quickly and sooner or later, the companies will have no one to subscribe. It is with this in mind that companies have been employing unique marketing strategies such as the media, internet and other local stores. Since the market is easily saturated, some operators are devising ways to get customers from other companies and subscribe them. This is however difficult because it requires that the services be superior, prices are low and quality is supreme. (Lovelock, 2006) Availability of Substitutes Those alternative products that have the ability to satisfy related needs and give solutions to customers for what they want are referred to as substitute products. They reduce the potential returns for many businesses since they place a ceiling on the prices offered for services. Companies that realize that services being offered do not much the substitutes, and then they adjust their quality and prices. Fro example, AT &T can be able to challenge the service that is offered by smaller mobile phone companies that include messaging by offering high speed voice messaging. (McGahan, 2004) Customers will always be tempted to try new products to see whether they are more effective and are made to believe that the newest services on the market are the best since they are current and tested. In order to counter substitute products, a majority of the companies tend to at least market their products as effectively as possible and thereby meet their market demand. The most worrying trend in the business is the fact that substitutes products come with other services that outweigh the quality of the other ones thus cause a threat to the company. Substitutes give the sellers and the users a variety of choices to choose from and making it very hard for some services to be entrenched into the market.      Reference Grant, R. (2005): Contemporary Strategy Analysis: – Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford pp 56-98 Lovelock, J. (2006): Services Marketing, People, Technology, and Strategy. New York, Prentice Hall, pp 30-33 McGahan, A. (2004): How Industries Evolve: – Principles for Achieving and Sustaining Superior Performance. Harvard Business School Press, pp 3-8 Porter, M. (1985): Competitive Advantage:-Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. The Free Press, New York, pp 19-43